Providing “Realistic Course Previews” to Enhance Learning and Satisfaction

Are you teaching a difficult psychology class? Having only taken a high school Introduction to Psychology classes, many college students are often ill-prepared for and surprised by the rigorous theory, content, and research in many psychology courses. You know what happens then…by the middle of the semester, students are frustrated and complaining, skipping class, and performing poorly on exams. Certain classes and professors soon get a bad reputation for being difficult and students avoid them. These instructors face intense pressures to “dumb down” the class material or artificially inflate grades at the end of the semester in order to appease students, satisfy parents, and keep enrollments up. These are not good options. I believe there is a simple and effective alternative, based on theory and principles from the study of employee motivation in the workplace, to address these problems without having to modify your course content.

Subsequent satisfaction is dependent on initial expectations…so says the Discrepancy Theory of employee motivation, a prominent theory in the field of Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology. Over the past 25 years, this theory has proven valuable in addressing how met expectations might positively impact employee motivation, satisfaction and performance, as well as decrease absenteeism and turnover.  Findings suggest that a large discrepancy between initial expectations and reality results in disgruntled workers, dysfunctional behaviors, and turnover. The subsequent recommendation is to ensure that initial employee expectations are as realistic as possible.

Discrepancy Theory in the workplace
The potential usefulness of a “realistic job preview” (RJP) has been well established (Phillips, 1998; Saks, Wiesner, & Summers, 1996).  The logic behind RJPs is that even though realistic pictures of the job may scare away some applicants, the ones who stay will not be unpleasantly surprised about the job. Because they know what to expect, informed applicants will tend to stay on the job longer and be more satisfied at work. The organization benefits by not wasting time and money on the selection and training of an employee who is soon dissatisfied and intends to quit. I believe that this theory has important applications for the college classroom. Similar to the informed employees in previous research, informed students will stay more focused in class, attend class more regularly, and perform better on assignments and exams. It is especially important that students who are less experienced with college level courses be provided with realistic previews of the rigorous content, incorporation of theory, and use of the statistics and research methods in our psychology classes.

Discrepancy Theory in the classroom
Instructors in I/O Psychology and Organizational Behavior classes often lecture on the importance of met expectations in the workplace and describe them as being critical to organizational outcomes.  I would like to make other instructors aware that met (or unmet) expectations will affect their classroom environment as well. Several researchers have extended Discrepancy Theory to the college classroom environment.  Yorges, Bloom, DiFonzo, and Chando (2007) compared pre-entry expectations with end-of-the-semester evaluations in ten different classes and found that unmet expectations did have an impact on student motivation, satisfaction, performance, absenteeism, and psychological withdrawal. By providing more accurate information early in the semester, students who feel they may be dissatisfied with a course will select themselves out of the class registration. Those who remain are more likely to have realistic expectations and should, in turn, have higher motivation, satisfaction, and performance with less absenteeism and withdrawal (whether psychological or behavioral). Evidence from RJP research in organizations supports the notion that employees will even tolerate unpleasant working conditions as long as they are told to expect it in advance. This may be particularly important for difficult courses that are required as part of the major curriculum. In classes where the material is notoriously difficult, harder to apply, or anxiety-provoking for most students, instructors must address these concerns at the start of the semester rather than ignoring or downplaying them.

Assessing initial expectations
To maximize the accuracy of student expectations and to minimize surprise or feelings of betrayal later in the semester, instructors should always assess the initial attitudes and beliefs of their incoming students. Few instructors ask students to articulate their expectations at the beginning of the semester. They may need to inquire, for example:

What are your goals for this course? To learn theories? To get a good grade? To apply learning to your job or life?
What reservations or concerns do you have about the course?
What is the “best” thing you expect to get out of this course? What is the “worst” thing you expect to experience in this course?
In what ways do you feel the instructor can help you achieve your goals in this class?
What have you heard about this course from others?
How hard do you expect this course to be?
What do you think the average grade typically is for this class?

Gathering this information can serve as the foundation for the development of a “realistic course preview” (RCP) and an opportunity to correct any inaccurate perceptions. In a small class, it is relatively easy to ask these questions of the entire group and discuss their reactions together. In a larger class, you might need to have them respond to these questions on a notecard during the first class. After reviewing them, you can look for common themes, misperceptions, and inaccuracies held by a majority of the students. You can select the issues you feel are most important and address them in the following class period.

Correcting inaccuracies
Instructors can specifically target misleading sources of information in course catalogs or inaccurate communication from academic advisers and colleagues. Peers are also a powerful source of information regarding class difficulty, assignments, grading policies, etc. It is possible that reactions of students who have taken the course previously may not match the description provided by the instructor. Information that comes from fellow students may be perceived as more accurate and believable by an incoming class. Instructors may want to solicit oral or written reactions from previous students and share these with the new class early in the semester. Providing honest student reactions from previous semesters would enable the instructor to correct any misinformation immediately.

Providing a realistic course preview
To minimize the discrepancy between initial student expectations and reality, instructors can provide a more extensive RCP in order to better prepare students for the actual course experience. An RCP requires considerably more detail in describing the nature of the course than what is traditionally provided by merely handing out a two-page syllabus at the start of the semester.  An RCP would require a very detailed overview of the class and a candid discussion of what the course will entail. While much has already been written about objectives that should be met on the first day of class, these usually include administrative recommendations such as how to communicate the content of the course, introducing oneself, detailing the text, and highlighting grading procedures and/or cheating policies.

In an expanded RCP, it would be beneficial for instructors to supplement these administrative details with an honest and thorough assessment of the following areas:

The classroom environment
What does a typical class period look like? How will students spend most of their time?
What will be the nature of visual aids (multimedia, handouts, chalkboard)?
Should students raise their hands to ask a question? Can they interrupt lecture? Are examples from students encouraged in class? Is classroom participation an important part of their grade?
How should students arrange their chairs for lecture? Discussion? Testing?
What are your policies concerning punctuality, use of cell phones, eating in class, completing other work during class, etc.?
How much work the course requires
How many hours should students plan to study for an exam?
How should students best prepare for each class period?
Relative to others classes, how have previous students rated the amount of work required in this course?
What students will get out of the course
What careers are relevant to this class?
What skills will they take away from this class that they did not have before?
How does this class relate to the major (if required)?
What prerequisite courses should be taken prior to this class?
How will the course content apply to their lives?
How much does the textbook cost? Will any accommodation be made for students who would prefer not to buy the textbook? Will they want to keep it after the class is over? Will the material covered in lecture be the same as the textbook or different?
The typical nature of student-instructor interactions
When are your office hours? How much time do you typically spend with students that come in for help during office hours?
What are the most common concerns that students bring to your office hours? How or what should your current students prepare prior to coming to your office hours?
How rapidly do you respond to email?
How have previous students rated your responsiveness to their needs?
What learning styles are best accommodated by your teaching methods?
What do you perceive as your strengths and weaknesses in the classroom?
Assignments/testing
What should students concentrate on the most for exams or assignments?
What is the typical format for an examination — multiple choice, essay, fill-in-the-blanks? How many items are on an exam and how many points for each?
Will students be primarily applying information or memorizing information?
How flexible are you with late papers? Can students email assignments to you rather than bringing them in to class?
Are students always expected to work individually or can they study/work in groups or compare notes?
How long does it typically take you to return graded assignments and exams?
What was the final grade distribution from the past several semesters?

At the beginning of the semester, it is helpful to show students a sample copy of a test that you have used in the past (and perhaps leave it on file for their review just prior to an examination). Discuss with them the typical grade distribution results for that exam. If you are going to assign a term paper, provide sample copies of exemplary papers that students have written in prior semesters. Provide them with the scoring rubric that you plan to use to grade that term paper. This allows them to see exactly what dimensions will be evaluated and the corresponding point values assigned to each. If you require oral presentations or in-class debates where students will be critiqued (by yourself and/or their peers), provide them with a sample copy of the evaluation form that will completed on their performance. It helps students to better prepare when they realize that they will be evaluated on such things as amount of eye contact, use of hand gestures, and other nonverbal cues in addition to the content of their presentation. For presentations or assignments completed with their peers, students should also have a good understanding of how their individual grade will be impacted by the performance of their group.

More is better!
Giving students more information at the beginning of the semester will foster more accurate expectations and help to develop greater trust between the student and instructor. In classes where I assign a lot of supplemental articles in addition to reading the textbook, I provide each student with a complete handbook with all the required readings already in it on the first day of class. I also provide all lecture outlines, case studies, and required homework assignments in a bound handbook at the beginning of the semester. Students can skim through these articles, lectures, and assignments to get a more accurate picture of the content that I will be covering and the amount of work they will be doing throughout the semester.  Armed with this information, they can decide whether or not the class will be a good fit for them. If not, they still have time to select an alternative. The students who remain have very clear expectations of what the class will look like, how their grade will be determined, and what will be required of them.

Left on their own, it can often take weeks for students to grasp the more qualitative aspects of the classroom environment. It is particularly important for instructors who teach entry-level courses to take their time in presenting RCP material. Freshman who are inexperienced with the requirements and nature of college level courses need more assistance in developing accurate perceptions of what a class will require and how best to budget their time.

It has been documented that large discrepancies between expectations and reality have detrimental consequences to student motivation and performance. The simple solution is to provide a realistic preview of your course at the beginning of the semester, assess initial student expectations, and correct any misperceptions immediately. While the expanded RCP will take more class time than simply handing out a syllabus on the first day, the potential benefits should be well worth the added effort. Giving increased attention to the accuracy of our student’s expectations at the start of the semester can result in better student attitudes, attendance, and performance.  ♦

References and Recommended Readings

Bloom, A. J., & Mahlstedt, D. (1992). Teaching as service: A conceptual framework. Journal of Staffing, Programs, and Organizational Development, 10, 103-110.
Brinthaupt, T.M. (2004). Providing a realistic course preview to on-line students. Teaching of Psychology, 31, 104-106.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Perlman, B., & McCann, L.I. (2004). The first day of class. Observer, 17, 23-25.
Phillips, J.M. (1998). Effects of realistic job previews on multiple organizational outcomes: A meta-analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 673-690.
Porter, L.W., & Steers, R.M. (1973). Organizational, work, and personal factors in employee turnover and absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 151-176.
Premack, S.L., & Wanous, J.P. (1985). A meta-analysis of realistic job preview experiments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 706-719.
Saks, A.M., Weisner, W.H., & Summers, R.J. (1994). Effects of job previews on self-selection and job choice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 297-316.
Saks, A.M., Wiesner, W.H., & Summer, R. J. (1996). Effects of job previews and compensation policy on applicant attraction and job choice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 68-85.
Wanous, J.P., Poland, T.D., Premack, S.L., & Davis, K.S. (1992). The effects of met expectations on newcomer attitudes and behaviors: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 288-297.
Yorges, S.L., Bloom, A.J., DiFonzo, K., & Chando, E. (2007). Great Expectations? Student Reactions When Courses Don’t Measure Up.  Psychology and Education, 44, 18-29.